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port for Sahaf bashi’s cinema was his pro–Constitutional views. Sahaf bashi
was one of the few people of the time who welcomed any new phenome-
non, and who would make people aware of the dictatorship of the Qajar
kings. This led to constant confrontation between Sahaf bashi and govern-
ment o‡cials; the government retaliated by causing him personal di‡-
culty, as well as hindering the operation of his cinema. This negative
environment, which was created by both the government and the reli-
gious faction, ultimately led to the closing of the cinema and Sahaf bashi’s
imprisonment.
After his release from prison he sold his cinema equipment, his shop
and factory. In ¡907 he and his family left Iran on a self-imposed exile to
Introduction
9
Karbala (in Iraq) and afterwards to India, where he finally settled down
for good. He left the di‡cult task of the expansion and promotion of cin-
ema in Iran to those who were not interested in its social and political
impact but were more concerned with the commercial aspects of the busi-
ness. Roosi Khan was among those who, after Sahaf bashi, took on the
challenge.
Mehdi Roosi Khan (Ivanov) was the student of Abdullah Qajar, the
chief photographer of Muhammad Ali Shah’s court. He was originally from
Russia. In ¡907 Roosi Khan opened his own photography shop; the same
year, two Russians showed two films in the Mirror Hall of the Golestan
Palace in honor of Prince Ahamad Mirza.¡3 Both films were accompanied
by a gramophone, and both lasted two hours. These same two Russians,
whose names are unknown, later showed several sessions of films to well-
known aristocrat families in their houses and at their weddings. The sup-
port for the Russians’ films led to Roosi Khan’s purchase of a projector and
fifteen rolls of film (which were 500 to ¡000 meters each) from the Pathé
Company in Paris. He showed these films mostly in the royal harem-house
and the houses of aristocrats. He also began showing films in his own pho-
tography shop, advertising them in the daily newspaper, Sobeh-Sadeq:
Roosi Khan’s Photography Shop in Alaodollah Avenue will show the new
motion pictures using the Cinematograph, which is the new invention for
the display of moving pictures.¡4
In ¡908 he turned the existing backyard of Darolfonoon College into
a new theater, placing seating within the yard and covering it with a blue
cloth for protection from the heat. This venue was able to seat two hun-
dred patrons and showed short films every afternoon. Among these was a
short film about the Japan-Russia war and the ¡904–5 wars. He also
employed a violinist and a pianist to promote his cinema. The following
year Roosi Khan went to Russia and brought several films back to Iran.
Because of the popularity of his business, Roosi Khan decided to open
another cinema. He rented the upper level of the Farous Publications on
Laleh Zar Avenue, and there he screened French comic films, mostly those
of Max Linder, one of the leading comic actors of the time.¡5 Compared to
previous venues, the new theater was very large, with the capacity to hold
300 to 500 patrons. In addition, for the first time in Iran, the light for the
projector was provided by an arc lamp.
A year later, in ¡909, Roosi Khan filmed the Ashura mourning pro-
cession of Muharram¡6 and sent it to Russia to be developed. Due to polit-
ical and religious reasons this film was never shown in Iran; in Iran, it was
impossible to show such a religious ritual in the cinema, because movies
10
Introduction
were prohibited by religion. Roosi Khan, the second Iranian cinematog-
rapher, after Akasbashi, was consequently unable to display his work in
his home country.
In the same period, a man named Aghayov stepped onto the scene,
establishing a new cinema in the back of a shop in Naseri Avenue (pres-
ent Naser Khosro). This small cinema had only 20 seats. In the tradition
of Abel and Cain, Roosi Khan and Aghayov, pioneering brothers in the his-
tory of Iranian cinema, soon began a fiercely jealous competition which
ultimately led to conspiracies by both parties. The popularity of Roosi
Khan’s Darolfonoon Cinema, which was located close to the Aghayov Cin-
ema, led Aghayov to employ goons to attack and severely injure one of
Roosi Khan’s employees. Roosi Khan took the matter to his Russian friend,
Lyakhov, who was the chief of police in Tehran. Lyakhov used his power
to imprison Aghayov in the Kazak prison of the Russian embassy. Roosi
Khan also hired one of Lyakhov’s men as a security guard for his theater.
Still, the tension continued. Aghayov who was also influential, hired a
lawyer and had Roosi Khan put in jail. Ironically, the Abel and Cain of Iran-
ian cinema spent time in the same jail together!
After his release from prison, Roosi Khan closed the troublemaking
theater at Darolfonoon and opened a new one in the Darvazeh Qazvin
suburb. At his new establishment, most of the films shown were Russian.
Roosi Khan, who unlike Sahaf bashi was not a freedom fighter but instead
was a supporter of the Qajar dynasty, preferred his patrons to be aristo-
crats and especially anti–Constitutionalists. But since pro–Constitutional
activists were also in search of entertainment and viewed cinema positively,
they did not boycott Roosi Khan’s cinema. At the height of the pro–Con-
stitutional movement, in ¡909, the theater would be occupied by pro–
Constitutionalists one night, and by anti–Constitutionalists the following
night. This compromise continued until Muhammad Ali Shah, who was
against the Constitutional movement and was trying to maintain his
absolute power, lost the battle against pro–Constitutional activists. In
¡909 he had to take refuge in the Russian embassy, and subsequently fled
Iran.
The victory of the Constitutionalists made the situation di‡cult for
Roosi Khan, and he closed his cinema in Darvazeh Qazvin and made
significant changes at the Faroos cinema, but eventually he was forced to
close that one as well. In ¡909, with the flight of Mohammad Ali Shah from
Iran and the climax of the pro–Constitutional uprising, Roosi Khan’s shop
was looted. He was forced to leave for France in ¡9¡2.
Roosi Khan and Aghayov can be credited with establishment of com-
mercial cinema in Iran. They were both Russian, and most likely Christ-
Introduction
11
ian Orthodox. Other than Sahaf bashi, no Iranian Muslim had the cour-
age to engage in the business of cinema at a time when the prevailing reli-
gious and political attitudes were opposed to the activity.
Following in the footsteps of Roosi Khan and Aghayov, Ardeshir Khan
next became the leading figure in Iranian cinema. Ardeshir Khan-e Armeni
(Armenian) was a textile trader who traveled to France in ¡900, where he
was introduced to the cinematograph. He worked for a while at the Pathé
Company, and upon preparing for his return to Iran, he purchased a bicy-
cle, a gramophone and a film projec
tor to take back.¡7 Like Sahaf bashi,
Ardeshir Khan did not tell anyone of his purchase. With the victory of Con-
stitutionalists there was a great change in the political and religious atmos-
phere of the country, and in ¡9¡3, he opened a theater on Allaodolleh
Avenue. He called his cinema Tajadod (Modern), and its opening sup-
ported a new wave of modernism initiated by the pro-constitutional
activists. Like Roosi Khan, he also employed a pianist and a violinist to
play during the screening of the films. When the audience was small, he
himself played the piano, while also explaining the scenes in the motion
picture. In his theater the guests were treated to ice cream and refresh-
ments during summertime, and in winter patrons were o›ered tea and
sweets, creating a friendly atmosphere for the audience. However, after
some time the o›erings became repetitive because Ardeshir Khan was
unable to purchase new films. His business declined, and Ardeshir Khan
was forced to close his theater in ¡9¡3, the same year it opened. He returned
three years later, however, and in ¡9¡6 he once again opened the cinema,
with renovations. He advertised the reopening in Etelaat, a newspaper:
New and important show! Soon in the Allaodolleh Avenue, opposite the
Pars Inn, a new cinema called “Modern Cinema” will be opened. The films
shown in this cinema are from the battlefields of the recent European wars.
Audiences will enjoy the viewing of these films immensely.¡8
Modern Cinema had no more than eight rows of seats, with a maxi-
mum capacity of eighty people. The small screen (approximately 3.5 by 2
meters) was made of white cotton. Only fifteen minutes of silent films
were shown each day, and as electricity was not available in that part of
the city, a kerosene lantern served as the source of light for the projector.
Ardeshir Khan was also responsible for the establishment of the first
open-air cinema in Iran. He rented a park, situated between Aramaneh
and Amiriyeh Avenues, and began to show films there. He also opened a
cinema for female audiences only, with the cooperation of Khan Baba
Motazedi, but unfortunately the cinema was closed soon after its open-
ing due to a di›erence of opinions between the partners. Social issues, like
12
Introduction
the appearance of women in public places, probably contributed to the
closing of the cinema. Ardeshir Khan remained active in the cinema indus-
try until ¡925.
Around ¡920 the industry expanded to other parts of Iran and many
people in various capital cities around the country began opening the-
aters, although many did not stay open long. Ali Vakili, a businessman and
graduate of the Alliance School in France, was very active in the establish-
ment of cinemas during this period. He was very welcoming towards the
new art form, and believed that to achieve progress, one must move with
the times. On one of his trips to Baghdad in ¡924, he bought a projector
and several films. He rented the Grand Hotel salon and opened it as Grand
Cinema. This salon, with a capacity of 500, was not very di›erent in terms
of equipment and facilities from other theaters. Like Ardeshir Khan, Vak-
ili also opened a cinema solely for female patrons. He transformed the
Zoroastrian Girl’s School theatre hall into a cinema and placed various
advertisements in newspapers to attract female patrons:
Good news for ladies: In Zoroastrian Cinema, the famous series of Ruth
Roland,¡9 the world renowned artist, will be shown for the respected ladies.
The viewing of amusing actions of a young female like Ruth Roland is nec-
essary for ladies. On ¡0th May ¡928, Zoroastrian Cinema will provide a
complementary ticket for every lady who purchases a ticket.20
Although Reza Shah Pahlavi, after gaining power in ¡92¡ and the
establishment of the Pahlavi dynasty in ¡925, was eager to improve the
social and cultural situation for women in Iran, the social structure of
Iranian society still did not allow women to venture outside the house in
order to go to the theatre or cinema. Such social activities were limited to
only those women from well-educated and modern families. Due to ongo-
ing religious and social restrictions, these first attempts to establish cine-
mas for women were unwelcome and consequently failed. This did not
deter Vakili and he began to think of other ways to attract women to the
cinemas. For example, he separated men and women into two sections,
and gave the balcony to the women. He advertised this new change in a
newspaper:
The announcement of “Grand Cinema” and the entry of women: The
Founder of Grand Cinema, in order to serve you has dedicated a section
especially for the respected ladies and therefore tonight invites all locals
to view new and unequaled films. And in honor of the attendance of the
respected ladies, the first and second parts of the famous series “The Cop-
per Bullet” will be shown for the first time in one night. The entry door
Introduction
13
for respected ladies is from Grand Cinema, and for the gentlemen from
Grand Hotel. The employees of Grand Cinema and also the o‡cers of
Police Department will refuse entry to inappropriately dressed ladies and
troublesome youth.2¡
Vakili’s advertisement generated little response, and the balcony was
often empty. Ladies chose not to attend this new cinema, or were prohib-
ited from attending by their husbands, fathers and brothers. Vakili, undis-
couraged, established a new cinema, called Cinema Sepah, and also
undertook e›orts to publish Iran’s first film magazine. In ¡928 he was
granted a license by the Ministry of Cultural A›airs, and in ¡930, publi-
cation of Cinema va Namayeshat (Cinema and Theatre) began. After the
publication of the second issue of Cinema va Namayeshat, however, Ali
Vakili retired from the cinema industry altogether.
The first important silent Iranian news footage was produced by Khan
Baba Motazedi, Iran’s third cinematographer, between ¡925 and ¡93¡. He
learned the art of cinematography while studying electrical engineering
in France. For a time while in France he was employed with the Gaumont
Company as a cinematographer, and upon his return to Iran, he brought
a film projection system and all the other equipment required to screen
films. Between ¡925 and ¡93¡ he produced several pieces of news footage,
the most important of them capturing the establishment of Constitutional
Parliament in which the monarchy was passed from the Qajar dynasty to
the Pahlavi dynasty. His second important film was about the coronation
ceremony of Reza Shah Pahlavi in ¡926.22 In early ¡928, he followed the
example of Ardeshir Khan and established the San’ati Cinema for female
audiences. Unfortunately the cinema was destroyed in a fire few months
later. During the fire The Thief of Baghdad 23 was showing. The fire was said
to be caused by faults in the electrical wiring, however with the evidence
that emerged later and the repeated fires in other cinemas, it is apparent
 
; that this incident and similar ones were the work of anti-cinema groups.
(The most horrific of these fires was the burning of Cinema Rex in the city
of Abadan during the Islamic Revolution in ¡977; more than six hundred
people lost their lives). The San’ati Cinema was probably burned because
it raised the ire of those who were opposed to cinemas in general, and fur-
thermore, because it actively sought women as patrons.
After the San’ati Cinema fire, Khan Baba Motazedi established the Pari
and Tammadon cinemas. He gave the right side of the salon to the women
and the left to the men. Apart from this, Motazedi and Vakili also trans-
lated the captions into Persian in order to attract a greater number of
patrons. This was the first attempt to create subtitles in Iran, in the lan-
guage of the audience, but unfortunately due to the illiteracy of many of
14
Introduction
A scene from one of the films of Akasbashi, the first cinematographer in Iran
(¡900–¡904).
the patrons the e›ort did not have the desired e›ect. Later, the dubbing
of films became routine in Iran. To solve the problem of the patrons’ illit-
eracy, Motazedi employed someone to read the captions out loud for the
audience (similar to the early Japanese cinema). At the time most cinemas
in Tehran screened films starring Richard Talmadge, the American actor
who was famous for his wild actions.
The first school for cinema in Iran was opened by Avance Okaniance
(Okanian) in ¡930. Okaniance was a Russian-Armenian immigrant who
studied in the School of Cinematic Art in Moscow and in ¡930 emmi-
grated to Iran.24 He soon became active in the film industry, and with the
support of one of his countrymen, Grisha Sakvarlidze, opened a school
for cinema studies:
Madreseh Artisti Cinema (Artistic School of Cinema) will open on
Allaodolleh Avenue on April ¡5, ¡930. The school has both male and female
specialised teaching sta›, and there are special classes for ladies.25
The advertisement did not attract many students, and so Okaniance
placed a second one in the same newspaper. After the second advertise-
ment, one hundred and fifty students enrolled in the school, but no women
Introduction
15
were among them. Okaniance, who like most intellectuals of his time was
eager to involve women in the art of cinema, again advertised the estab-